Operating systems are fundamental software components that manage computer hardware and software resources, serving as an interface between the user and the computer.
The evolution of operating systems has seen significant changes, driven by advancements in hardware and changing user demands (Jia et al., 2024). Early operating systems were designed for sequential processing, while modern OS are complex systems capable of managing diverse tasks and environments .
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems can be broadly classified based on their design philosophy, resource management, and the environment they are intended for.
Batch Operating Systems
Batch systems are among the earliest types of operating systems. Their primary idea was to process a series of user programs, known as a "batch," sequentially . In these systems, jobs with similar characteristics were grouped and executed one after another without direct user interaction. Once a job was submitted, it was out of the user's hands, with execution dependent on the OS characteristics (Madron, 1979). This approach aimed to maximize CPU utilization by automating job preparation and execution, reducing processor idle time . However, they suffered from low throughput and were not suitable for interactive environments .
Time-Sharing Operating Systems
Emerging as an advancement from batch processing, time-sharing systems allow multiple users to interact with a single computer simultaneously . These systems achieve this by rapidly switching the CPU among multiple programs, giving each user the illusion that they have continuous access to the computer (“Foundations of Computer Science,” 1978; Ghose, 2024). This temporal multiplexing involves allocating small, predetermined periods (scheduling quanta) to each program, after which the CPU switches to another pending program . Time-sharing systems typically employ preemptive multitasking and scheduling techniques like Round-Robin to manage CPU allocation efficiently .
Single-User Systems
These operating systems are designed to support a single user at a time. They can be further categorized:
Single-user, Single-task Systems: These systems allow one user to perform one task at a time. They are often found in handheld devices where the focus is on performing a specific function effectively .
Single-user, Multi-tasking Systems: This is the most common type for personal computers like desktops and laptops (e.g., Windows and macOS). They enable a single user to run multiple programs or perform several tasks concurrently .
Multi-User Operating Systems
Multi-user operating systems permit multiple users to access the same data or information and resources simultaneously, often via a network. These systems ensure fair resource allocation and prevent conflicts among active users. Examples include server operating systems and Linux, which is widely used in supercomputers and data centers (Thangavel et al., 2019).
Multiprocessing Operating Systems
Multiprocessing systems are designed to utilize multiple central processing units within a single computer system. All processes operate under a single OS, and the key benefits include enhanced performance, increased system throughput, and faster execution of individual processes.
Network Operating Systems
Network operating systems manage resources, users, and data across a network. They facilitate sharing of files, printers, and applications among connected computers, and their core function is to provide network services. NOS are responsible for resource management and implementing security policies within the network environment. While conceptually similar to single-processor operating systems, they focus on distributed resource management and security for networked applications (Paladi & Gehrmann, 2015; Tanenbaum, 1992).
Distributed Operating Systems
Distributed operating systems manage a collection of mostly autonomous processors that communicate over a network, creating the illusion of a single, cohesive system. Key characteristics include the absence of a common physical clock and shared memory, relying on message-passing for communication. DOS address issues such as communication primitives, naming and protection, resource management, and fault tolerance, providing services like file, print, and process management across the distributed environment (Tolentino, 2010).
Real-Time Operating Systems
Real-time operating systems are specialized OS designed for systems where the correctness of operations depends not only on logical results but also on the strict time constraints (deadlines) within which those results are produced (Babamir, 2012; Kavi et al., 2009). RTOS must guarantee responses within these strict time constraints (Babamir, 2012). These systems are categorized by the strictness of their deadlines:
Hard real-time systems: Missing a deadline can lead to catastrophic consequences and system failure, as seen in safety-critical applications like car airbag control units or aircraft control systems (Williams, 2006).
Firm real-time systems: Missing a deadline makes the result useless but does not cause system damage, though frequent misses degrade usefulness .
Soft real-time systems: Missing a deadline is tolerable and the result may still have some utility, though performance degrades.
RTOS achieve real-time capability by scheduling tasks according to priorities to meet these deadlines (Niesler et al., 2021).
Embedded Operating Systems
Embedded systems are optimized for specific tasks and run on devices with limited resources, such as smart home devices, automotive electronics, and industrial automation. These operating systems prioritize real-time performance, reliability, and efficient resource management. Examples include uClinux, FreeRTOS, and VxWorks. They can range from minimalist monolithic firmware without OS abstraction to systems running general-purpose OS kernels like Linux, albeit with a more minimalist approach (Avoine & Hernández-Castro, 2021; Corteggiani, 2020; Muench, 2019).
Mobile Operating Systems
Mobile operating systems are specifically designed for smartphones, tablets, and other mobile devices. They focus on power efficiency, user experience, and supporting on-the-go connectivity and applications. Prominent examples include Android (by Google) and iOS (by Apple Inc.) (Adekotujo et al., 2020).
Desktop Operating Systems
Desktop operating systems provide robust functionalities and user-friendly interfaces for personal computers. They aim to maximize user experience, convenience, and responsiveness. Windows, macOS, and various Linux distributions are the most common desktop operating systems (Adekotujo et al., 2020; Thangavel et al., 2019).
Server Operating Systems
Server operating systems are specialized for server environments, optimized for network and server hardware performance (Jia et al., 2024). They are designed to deliver scalable and resilient services for enterprises and data-intensive tasks by leveraging extensive resources. These OS are equipped with efficient network stacks for high bandwidth and low latency, optimized for multi-core processors, large memory, and high-speed storage. They excel at high concurrency handling and multitasking, managing thousands of simultaneous user requests and effectively allocating resources. Security is a critical feature, with multi-layer measures like firewalls, intrusion detection, data encryption, and regular auditing to protect sensitive information. Server OS, such as Linux, are favored for their stability and security, playing a crucial role in maintaining the availability of application servers (Bajgorić, 2017; Zeynalli, 2023).
Conclusion
Operating systems are the cornerstone of modern computing, evolving significantly to meet diverse technological demands. From the earliest batch processing to today's cloud-based and mobile platforms, each type of OS is tailored to specific requirements and operational contexts, demonstrating remarkable adaptability and innovation . Their continued development is crucial for facilitating technological advancements and enhancing the efficiency and responsiveness of computing across a wide array of devices.
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